A new study from Wharton management professor Tiantian Yang finds that when women are rejected for contract jobs in male-dominated fields, specifically IT and computer programming, they are far less likely than men to continue looking for work in those industries. Post-rejection, women are also far more likely than men to seek jobs outside tech, and many stop looking for work altogether.

The loss is contributing to a “leaky pipeline” in STEM, where women and minorities enter those careers only to leave at some point, their ambition crushed by experiences of discrimination, isolation, or lack of opportunity. Although women have risen in STEM during the last few decades, the gender gap persists: Women account for only 28% of the global STEM workforce.

“We often see young women initially choose STEM majors, only to switch to other fields after having negative experiences,” Yang says. “This contributes to lower numbers of women in STEM over time. Staying in these fields is challenging for many women, not only because of limited opportunities but also because of self-perception. Gendered expectations can also make it especially difficult to persist in the job search after facing repeated rejections.”

The paper, “Approaching or Avoiding? Gender Asymmetry in Reactions to Prior Job Search Outcomes by Gig Workers in Female- vs. Male-typed Job Domains,” appears in the journal Social Forces. Co-authors are Jiayi Bao, management professor at Texas A&M University’s Mays Business School, and Ming D. Leung, professor at the Paul Merage School of Business at the University of California-Irvine.

‘We often see young women initially choose STEM majors, only to switch to other fields after having negative experiences. This contributes to lower numbers of women in STEM over time.’
—Tiantian YangYang, who studies racial and gender inequality in the workforce, says biases about women in STEM are embedded in cultures around the world—such as the myth that men are better at math, despite evidence showing no difference in ability. These gendered beliefs seep into organizational structure, influence hiring and promotion decisions, and ultimately affect the way that some women feel about themselves.

“Women are aware of male biases in those fields through their own experiences or hearing about it from others,” she says. “That awareness makes them more likely to change their job-seeking strategies when they are rejected.”

Psychological fallout from job rejection

To understand what happens when male and female freelancers face rejection, the scholars analyzed 700,000 applications for more than 200,000 job postings for contract work offered by over 70,000 employers on an online marketplace. The study spanned 12 years of data, from the site’s inception in 2000 to December 2012.

According to the study, women who were rejected for IT and computer programming gigs were less likely to reapply than rejected men, and more likely to reduce their overall job-seeking activity. But the same didn’t hold true for writing and translation gigs—two female-typed fields. The scholars found no gendered differences in the behaviors of male and female applicants for those jobs.

“There’s basically no effect for female-typed jobs. I think the reason is men tend to have higher confidence in their gender abilities, and they tend to be more assertive in their career pursuits in terms of asking for higher salaries and promotions,” Yang says, noting that this confidence is fostered at a young age. Studies have shown that boys tend to overestimate their performance on tests, while girls underestimate—even when their scores are the same.

Yang says she and her colleagues wanted to understand gender asymmetry in job applications because while rejection is common, nobody talks about it. She likened it to social media, where people tend to post only positive aspects of their lives.

‘Women often feel more discouraged because they’re left guessing why they were rejected.’
—Tiantian Yang“People can be very discouraged by rejection and change their job-seeking behavior, and this really matters for gender inequality,” she says.

Although the study focused on IT and computer programming, the results can be generalized to any male-dominated field, Yang says. It also builds on previous work by others. A 2017 study, for example, found that women executives were more likely than men not to interview with a firm that rejected them in the past. Other studies have shown that women in male-dominated fields are more concerned about discrimination than their own competence.

“The takeaway is that as long as gender norms persist, they will shape both sides of the labor market—employers’ hiring decisions and job seekers’ behavior. These norms don’t just influence how candidates are perceived; they also shape how individuals navigate the job search itself,” Yang says.

Closing the confidence gap

Both employers and job seekers have a role to play in fixing the leaky pipeline and retaining more women in STEM. For employers, one of the most immediate and effective steps is to increase transparency and context in the hiring process, says Yang. This includes clearly stating job qualifications, using objective hiring criteria, and actively identifying and mitigating implicit bias. Sharing statistics—such as the fact that 500 applicants competed for a single position—can also help candidates put rejection into perspective.

“Women often feel more discouraged because they’re left guessing why they were rejected,” Yang says. “They may wonder if the employer preferred a male candidate, or they question their own abilities. A bit of objective information can go a long way in easing that doubt.”

Transparent and fair hiring processes don’t just benefit women. They also make it more likely that individuals from underrepresented backgrounds will apply. By demystifying the process, employers can help broaden the pool of diverse talent.

At the same time, Yang emphasized the importance of women—particularly those at the outset of their careers—challenging cultural narratives that cast doubt on their competence. While confidence alone may not be enough to overcome bias, it can bolster women’s determination to persevere and assert their place in male-dominated fields.

“It’s crucial for women to push back against the notion that they’re somehow less capable,” she says. “Trust in the evidence of your own performance and skills. Don’t let rejection convince you that you don’t belong.”

Published July 1, 2025, by Knowledge at Wharton.